Our team is from National Chung Hsing University (NCHU) in Taichung, Taiwan. Originally an agricultural university, NCHU has grown into a comprehensive institution with strong programs in agriculture, engineering, humanities, management, and information sciences.
With its extensive farms, forests, and ranches, NCHU provides an integrated ecosystem for education and hands-on training in agricultural and livestock research.
Inspired by this environment, our team developed a deep interest in sustainable agriculture and carbon management. While reviewing the university’s sustainability reports, we noticed that despite ongoing energy-saving initiatives, livestock-related emissions still make up a large share of the carbon footprint.
“How can we apply our expertise to develop new solutions that help reduce carbon emissions from livestock?”
This question became the foundation and motivation for our project.
To better understand the environmental impact of livestock emissions on our campus, we analyzed data from the National Chung Hsing University Sustainability Reports published in 2022, 2023, and 2024 (National Chung Hsing University, 2022; 2023; 2024). Our focus was on emissions from both the Xixinba Ranch and the main campus, with particular attention to trends related to animal agriculture.
These figures highlight that a significant proportion of emissions originated from animal metabolism and energy consumption.
The emission structure remained largely unchanged from 2022. Although the university introduced several sustainability measures—including renewable energy adoption and resource recycling—the overall emissions stayed relatively stable.
In 2024, the university shifted to a more integrated reporting format, using a "campus-wide inventory" approach. Emissions from the ranch were included within the broader Scope 1 and Scope 2 categories.
Across all three years, our analysis revealed a persistent trend: despite various energy-saving and sustainability efforts, the total greenhouse gas emissions remained largely unchanged. This is particularly true for emissions linked to the ranch, where biological sources—primarily methane from animal digestion—proved difficult to reduce through infrastructure or operational changes alone.
We realized that in order to make meaningful reductions in livestock-related carbon emissions, we needed to go beyond external management strategies. The solution would need to start at the biological level—by directly targeting the animals' own emissions. This became the driving force behind our research and innovation.
The Xixinba Ranch at NCHU serves not only as a key educational and training site for agriculture- and livestock-related departments, but also as the producer of one of the university's most iconic agricultural products—milk.
Dairy farming emission sources include:
Dairy farming involves multiple energy-intensive processes, including cattle rearing, milking, cold-chain management, and processing. Each stage contributes to the overall greenhouse gas footprint of dairy production.
For this reason, we chose to focus our project on milk production—exploring how innovative biological strategies could mitigate carbon emissions in dairy processes and contribute to a more sustainable form of dairy production.
Cow's milk contains two major variants of β-casein—A1 and A2—which differ by only a single amino acid at position 67: A1 contains histidine, whereas A2 contains proline. This seemingly minor substitution leads to a conformational difference in the peptide chain.
Key Difference:
A1 β-casein is more susceptible to enzymatic cleavage during digestion, releasing a bioactive opioid peptide known as β-casomorphin-7 (βCM-7). In contrast, A2 β-casein, due to the steric hindrance introduced by proline, rarely produces βCM-7 (González-Rodríguez et al., 2025).
βCM-7 binds to opioid receptors located in the intestinal, immune, and endocrine systems, modulating intestinal motility, secretion, and inflammatory responses. Such interactions can contribute to gastrointestinal discomfort, bloating, or chronic intestinal inflammation.
Potential Effects of A1 β-casein or βCM-7:
(González-Rodríguez et al., 2025)
Beyond gastrointestinal effects, βCM-7 has also been reported to cross the blood–brain barrier and bind to μ-opioid receptors in the central nervous system, potentially influencing neurotransmission and gut–brain axis communication, which may affect behavior and emotional stability (González-Rodríguez et al., 2025).
Note: The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA, 2009) concluded that current evidence remains insufficient to establish a direct causal relationship between βCM-7 and chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disorders or autism. Nevertheless, its involvement in gut inflammation and neuro-immune modulation remains an important focus of ongoing research.
At present, the production of A2 milk mainly relies on genotype screening and selective breeding. This approach involves identifying the cow's β-casein gene (CSN2) variants through molecular testing and gradually increasing the proportion of A2A2 genotypes within the herd.
Genetic Background:
The β-casein gene (CSN2) is located on chromosome 6, with the most common allelic variants being A1 and A2, which exhibit codominant inheritance. Cattle can have three possible genotypes:
To accelerate herd conversion, farms typically adopt two breeding strategies (Beaver & Doormal, 2016; Meyer, 2018):
Proactive Strategy:
Genotype all cattle and breed only A2A2 individuals, often grouping them in separate barns for easier management.
Passive Strategy:
Use only A2A2 bulls for mating, gradually increasing the A2A2 proportion through multiple generations.
According to data from the Livestock Research Institute, Hsinchu Branch (2019), approximately 13% of bulls are A1A1, 46% are A1A2, and 41% are A2A2. Selective breeding alone would require about seven generations to achieve 99% A2A2 cattle.
While this strategy ensures milk quality, it is time-consuming and costly, and prolonged single-gene selection may result in:
With the rising global focus on health and sustainability, the A2 milk market has grown rapidly in recent years. The a2 Milk Company (New Zealand), founded in 2000, successfully popularized the A1/A2 milk concept and now distributes products across Australia, the U.S., the U.K., and China, reaching over USD 1.5 billion in revenue in 2024 (The a2 Milk Company Annual Report, 2024). In Taiwan, The Milk Shop launched its A2 β-casein milk in the same year, sparking interest in molecularly defined and digestive-friendly dairy products.
Current Market Limitations:
Developing pure A2A2 herds requires long-term selective breeding and genotyping, which are costly, inefficient, and time-consuming. Limited supply keeps prices 30–50% higher than conventional milk. As the dairy industry moves toward sustainability, new technologies are being explored to create low-carbon and scalable production systems.
While plant-based milk offers a partial alternative, it lacks the nutritional balance and sensory properties of real dairy. This has led to the emergence of "cow-less milk", a new concept that has attracted major players in the food technology and bio-manufacturing industries.
Precision Fermentation Technology:
According to Nature Biotechnology (Waltz, 2022) and Hilgendorf et al. (2024), the foundation of cow-less milk lies in precision fermentation—a technology combining genetic engineering and industrial-scale fermentation.
In this process, genes encoding key milk proteins are inserted into microorganisms such as Pichia pastoris, Trichoderma reesei, or Aspergillus niger. Under controlled fermentation conditions, these microbes express and secrete milk-identical proteins, which are then purified and formulated into authentic animal-free dairy products.
Compared with traditional dairy farming, precision fermentation can:
(Hilgendorf et al., 2024)
Industry Pioneers:
Our project applies synthetic biology to develop a microbial platform for A2 β-casein production, aiming to create a sustainable, nutritious, and health-conscious alternative to traditional dairy. This initiative directly supports multiple United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by addressing challenges in food security, human health, sustainable production, and climate action.
Creating novel nutritional sources and reducing dependence on land and feed resources
Conventional dairy production requires vast amounts of land, feed, and water. In contrast, microbial systems can produce high-quality proteins from simple carbon sources such as glucose or plant by-products in a controlled environment. This approach decouples protein production from agriculture, making it more resilient to climate and geographical limitations. In the long term, this technology contributes to food security and equitable access to nutrition, helping bridge the global protein gap.
Providing a gentler dairy option for individuals with digestive sensitivity
Many people experience gastrointestinal discomfort from conventional milk due to β-casomorphin-7 (BCM-7), a peptide released from A1 β-casein digestion that may trigger intestinal inflammation. A2 β-casein avoids this issue due to its unique amino acid composition. By microbially producing A2 β-casein, our project aims to provide a digestive-friendly, low-allergen alternative, improving dietary well-being and quality of life.
Building a sustainable dairy alternative to promote low-carbon dietary culture
Traditional dairy farming is resource-intensive and carbon-heavy. Producing A2 β-casein through microbial precision fermentation enables animal-free dairy protein synthesis, reducing energy, land, and water demands while fostering a circular, bio-based economy. Through synthetic biology, we aim to promote responsible consumption patterns and shift dairy production toward a low-carbon, precision manufacturing model.
Reducing methane and CO₂ emissions to address global warming
According to the FAO (2023), livestock accounts for 12% of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, with cattle contributing over 60%, mainly from enteric methane and manure management.
By transitioning milk protein production to microbial platforms, our project can eliminate direct methane emissions from livestock and improve overall carbon efficiency through precision fermentation. This innovation supports the global effort toward Net Zero 2050, offering a tangible solution for climate mitigation within the dairy industry.
To ensure that our project remained both scientifically feasible and socially relevant, we interviewed Prof. Wan-Yu Liu from the Department of Forestry, National Chung Hsing University, an expert in carbon management and carbon sequestration.
Key Insights from Prof. Liu:
Modern carbon reduction strategies are no longer limited to natural carbon sinks such as forests. Various industrial carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technologies have been developed to handle large-scale emissions. However, integrating these technologies into industrial practice requires a standardized carbon accounting methodology, as well as evaluation of energy efficiency and economic feasibility.
"If capturing 1 kg of CO₂ emits more than 1 kg in the process, the overall approach is counterproductive. For instance, bioenergy production from forestry waste may lose effectiveness if transportation, drying, and processing generate excessive carbon emissions."
— Prof. Wan-Yu Liu
Prof. Liu's Recommendation:
Develop a quantitative carbon accounting model to prove that the carbon emissions from cow-less milk production are lower than those from conventional dairy. A result that would represent a significant scientific and sustainability breakthrough.
To introduce younger generations to the concept of sustainable biotechnology, our team organized an outreach event at Huwei High School (Yunlin County, Taiwan) titled "From Microbiology to Synthetic Biology: Sustainable Earth and the Innovation of Cow-less Milk."
Through lectures, demonstrations, and interactive activities, we aimed to connect science with climate action and daily life.
Event Objectives:
The program consisted of two parts—student-led lectures and an invited expert talk.
Explained the role of livestock in greenhouse gas emissions and its environmental impact.
Introduced the central dogma (DNA → RNA → Protein) and the basics of protein expression. Using our project as an example, we showed how the β-casein gene was introduced into yeast, forming the foundation of cow-less milk production.
Discussed carbon fixation pathways and how metabolic design can improve energy efficiency. Encouraged students to think from the perspective of biological systems and resource cycles.
Our PI Prof. Chieh-Cheng Huang delivered a lecture titled "From Microbiology to Innovation: Applications of Synthetic Biology in Modern Society."
Prof. Huang explained how microbiology inspires advances in synthetic biology, highlighting applications in environmental remediation, pharmaceuticals, and sustainable food production. The talk deepened students' understanding of how biotechnology connects with real-world sustainability solutions.
Key Findings:
This outreach experience showed us that promoting sustainability requires not only knowledge dissemination but also empathy and participation. Through dialogue, we witnessed students' strong curiosity toward gene engineering and their desire to understand how biology can help protect the environment and mitigate climate change.
Our business plan centers on literature analysis, policy research, and strategic planning. As we remain in the experimental optimization and model validation phases, direct collaboration with industrial or governmental sectors has not yet begun. Still, by rigorously reviewing sustainability policies and carbon reduction strategies in Taiwan and abroad, we have created a practical roadmap for future implementation once our technology matures.
This section presents a feasibility-oriented conceptual design, built upon literature, expert consultation, and current policy frameworks. We view this preliminary plan as the groundwork for future industry and policy partnerships to enable real-world adoption of our cow-less A2 β-casein dairy innovation.
During our Human Practices interviews, Prof. Wan-Yu Liu (National Chung Hsing University) highlighted that true carbon reduction depends on not only technological innovation but also scientific data, industrial operations, and trusted methodologies. This reinforced the need for our design to progress in tandem with national policy, ensuring our work supports Taiwan's carbon reduction goals.
Guided by these insights, we adopted the “Six Major Carbon Reduction Strategies” from Taiwan’s Ministry of Economic Affairs as the foundation for future collaboration and industrial integration:
By advancing scientific carbon accounting and energy management, and fostering local industry partnerships, we can move from lab-scale experiments to genuine market implementation, forging a sustainable model for cow-less dairy in Taiwan.
| Strengths | Weaknesses |
|---|---|
|
Low-carbon, sustainable approach—eliminates livestock methane/CO₂ emissions. Innovation and first-mover advantage in Taiwan’s alternative dairy market. A2 β-casein addresses needs of sensitive and lactose intolerant populations. Appeals to environmentally conscious consumers amid rising awareness. |
Low public familiarity with microbial dairy—some confusion with plant-based trends. Tight competition from established dairy brands. High production costs with strong price sensitivity among younger buyers. |
| Opportunities | Threats |
|
Momentum for net-zero and ESG policy support. High youth interest in biotechnology and genetic engineering. Global growth in alternative dairy/precision fermentation markets. |
Potential misperception about biotechnology/genetic modification risks. Persistent price competition with conventional and plant-based milk. Absence of specific regulatory pathways for microbial-derived proteins. |
Cow-less A2 β-casein milk shows clear advantages in sustainability and consumer health, though there are hurdles in price, regulation, and public awareness. Our outreach surveys reveal young audiences are curious and receptive, providing a strong foundation for market entry. With ongoing collaboration between academia, industry, and policymakers, cow-less milk is positioned to become a key driver for Taiwan’s low-carbon food future.