The story began when our observant leader noticed fewer selfies of her mother while scrolling through the album. Curiously, she asked why her mother had stopped taking photos. The surprising reason was that her mother felt self-conscious about wrinkles on her face, prompting her to research on wrinkle removal. During her research, she discovered that facial masks containing an ingredient called Astaxanthin were very expensive. Consequently, she reviewed numerous scientific papers to understand the pricing rationale. After gaining clarity, she decided to develop an affordable Astaxanthin-infused facial mask for her mother and other mothers. Following discussions, our team unanimously adopted her proposal as our project.
Astaxanthin (AST) is a carotenoid with potent antioxidant properties, exhibiting a deep red colour. It is naturally synthesized in Haematococcus pluvialis, salmon, shrimp, crab, and few other organisms, serving as the primary pigment responsible for the red/orange colour. Industrial production of natural astaxanthin primarily relies on Haematococcus pluvialis (a single celled-microalga). Chemically synthesized astaxanthin is inexpensive but has low biological activity and is unsuitable for human consumption. According to Global Market Insights Inc., the global astaxanthin market was valued at approximately USD 998.1 million in 2024 and is projected to reach around USD 2.15 billion by 2034 [1-4]. The biosynthesis pathway, basic biological function and application were summarized in below.
The biosynthesis of astaxanthin can be divided into three modules, including IPP synthesis module, β-carotene synthesis module. This complex process is achieved by cooperation of a set of enzymes. Briefly, the IPP is synthesized by Mevalonate pathway (MVA) and/or Methylerythritol Phosphate Pathway (MEP). The IPP including 4 carbons is considered as the initial substrate for β-carotene synthesis. After several catalysation, the β-carotene with 40 carbon chain is formed. Finally, the ketone and hydroxyl groups are added into the 40 carbon chain to generate astaxanthin [1-5].
Figure 1. The biosynthesis pathway of astaxanthin, adopted from reference [5].
Strong Antioxidant: The conjugated C-C double bonds enable astaxanthin to readily neutralize free radicals, transforming harmful free radicals into more stable compounds. Consequently, astaxanthin effectively mitigates oxidative stress, offering robust protection to cells and tissues against oxidative damage.
Anti-inflammatory: Astaxanthin's anti-inflammatory effects which closely linked to its oxidant capacity are mediated through the modulation of intracellular signaling pathways and the inhibition of pro-inflammatory factors. Astaxanthin is receiving increasing attention as a multi-target drug that can treat a variety of inflammatory diseases.
Resistance to UV damage: Excessive exposure to UV radiation triggers the formation of photoproducts like cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers and pyrimidine-pyrimidinone (6-4) dimers in DNA, leading to DNA damage. Astaxanthin has emerged as a promising agent to combat UV-induced damage, primarily through its potent antioxidant capacity, efficiently quenching ROS and upregulating endogenous antioxidant enzymes.
Skin Health: In vitro and clinical studies suggest improvements in photoaging-related indicators (elasticity, roughness, wrinkles, etc.) by astaxanthin treatment.
Others: Astaxanthin also demonstrates significant antitumor and neuroprotective properties.
Nutritional Supplements/Food Ingredients: Astaxanthin have been consumed as food additives in many forms including capsules, soft gels, beverages, baked goods. Its consumption safety has been certified by many countries [6-8]. Japan classifies astaxanthin products as "Functional Labelled Foods," indicating they are considered essentially safe for consumption. The U.S. FDA has issued "no objection" letters for multiple Haematococcus pluvialis extract GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) notifications (e.g., GRN 000294/356/580), permitting use in various food categories (typical formulations provide 0.10–0.15 mg AXT per serving). The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) assessment indicates that, considering dietary background intake, an adult daily supplement of 8 mg is considered safe (with the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) updated to 0.2 mg/kg body weight).
Cosmetic Ingredients/Topical Formulations: Astaxanthin has been used as an antioxidant and photoprotective active ingredient in serums, creams, and similar formulations [9].
Aquafeeds: Due to the red colour, astaxanthin provides coloration for salmonids and crustaceans with potential antioxidant and immune benefits; recent meta-analyses suggest improved growth and feed efficiency across multiple species [1-5, 10].
Figure 2: Sources and applications of astaxanthin, adopted from reference [4].
Scavenging ROS and activating antioxidant pathways: UV exposure to skin generates large amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS), triggering lipid peroxidation and DNA damage (e.g., 8-OHdG formation). Astaxanthin activates the nuclear factor erythroid-2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway, inducing mRNA and protein expression of downstream antioxidant enzymes (e.g., HO-1, NQO1, GCLM/GCLC). This enhances the antioxidant capacity of skin cells (e.g., keratinocytes, fibroblasts), scavenges excess ROS, and reduces oxidative stress damage [4].
Inhibition of ECM degrading enzyme activity: UVA radiation activates the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, promoting transcription factor AP-1 activation. This subsequently upregulates matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1, degrades collagen) and skin fibroblast elastase (SFE/NEP, degrades elastic fibers), leading to skin wrinkles and laxity. Astaxanthin inhibits the phosphorylation of MAPK (p38, JNK, ERK) and AP-1 transactivation, reducing MMP-1 and SFE/NEP secretion while upregulating MMP inhibitor TIMP1 expression to maintain collagen and elastic fiber structural integrity [4].
Regulation of inflammatory factor release: UV radiation induces skin cells to secrete "wrinkle-promoting factors" such as IL-1α and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), exacerbating inflammatory responses and accelerating photoaging. Astaxanthin inhibits mRNA transcription and protein secretion of these inflammatory factors while reducing UV-induced keratinocyte apoptosis, thereby protecting skin cell integrity[4].
Protects skin microvasculature and barrier function: UV exposure causes skin capillary degeneration and increased transepidermal water loss (TEWL). Astaxanthin maintains capillary density, reduces UV-induced skin thickening, and enhances skin hydration by upregulating aquaporin 3 (AQP3) expression in keratinocytes, thereby repairing barrier function [4].
Figure 3. The proposed mechanism of astaxanthin against UV damage, adopted from reference [4].
BASF pathway and Hoffmann-LaRoche method represent the predominant industrial routes for commercial astaxanthin production. However, chemical synthesis yields a mixture of stereoisomers; these non-natural isomers may exhibit reduced biological activity or even undesirable effects. Furthermore, the resulting astaxanthin possesses lower antioxidant potency. The additional purification of astaxanthin from chemical residuals significantly increases production costs [11].
In the industry, several sources have been developed to produce natural astaxanthin with disadvantages not dressed up to date. 1) Haematococcus pluvialis is considered the best natural source of astaxanthin and the primary producing organism. However, as a microorganism, it is susceptible to contamination[12]. Hence, expensive extraction equipment and a strictly controlled environment are required during production[13]. 2) Shrimp bodies could serve as a sustainable astaxanthin source, but extraction is costly due to low astaxanthin density[14]. Another challenge is significant seasonal and regional variations, hindering widespread adoption. 3) Phaffia rhodozyma possesses the innate ability to produce astaxanthin. However, its cell membranes must be ruptured for extraction, and the pigment must be separated from other pigments, both processes incurring high costs [15].
The astaxanthin biosynthesis have been succeed in bacteria and yeast cell factories. The fermentation process is controllable and scalable, avoiding the high costs and safety concerns associated with extraction from algae or chemical synthesis. However, excessive accumulation of precursors and intermediate products necessitates optimization of enzyme activity, pathway modules, and spatial orientation to enhance conversion efficiency and yield, which requires scientific researches by experts [16].
With the advantages of shared research process and developed big database on astaxanthin biosynthesis using cell factories, we attempt to further improve astaxanthin production in E. coli to reduce the cost for astaxanthin production and design proper products. The brief process is as the figure below.
flowchart
This is the primary astaxanthin production aims to reduce wrinkles. However, to broaden its application, we also developed two additional products.
Traditionally, certain chemical compositions in Peking Opera makeup pigments could potentially harm the skin. After prolonged wear, actors frequently experienced issues like skin irritation and dryness. By incorporating astaxanthin into the Peking Opera makeup pigments, we've found a great solution. Astaxanthin, with its excellent antioxidant properties, can effectively relieve skin stress and reduce potential damage. It helps keep the skin in the healthier state even under the thick layers of pigments, making the Peking Opera makeup experience better for actor.
Our new essence is designed to deliver superior skincare results. We've incorporated astaxanthin into its formulation. This potent ingredient synergistically enhances the effects of other elements within the essence. It boosts antioxidant benefits, making the essence more effective at nourishing, hydrating, and rejuvenating the skin.
[1] Shah M. R., Liang Y., Cheng J. J., Daroch M. Astaxanthin-producing green microalga Haematococcus pluvialis: from single cell to high value commercial products. Frontiers in Plant Science, 2016, 7:531.
[2] Higuera-Ciapara I., Félix-Valenzuela L., Goycoolea F. M. Astaxanthin: a review of its chemistry and applications. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 2006, 46(2):185-196.
[3] Ambati R. R., Phang S. M., Ravi S., Aswathanarayana R. G. Astaxanthin: sources, extraction, stability, biological activities and its commercial applications — a review. Marine Drugs, 2014, 12(1):128–152.
[4] Sun, L., Li, Y., Yang, A., Xie, M., Xiong, R., Huang, C. Astaxanthin: A comprehensive review of synthesis, biological activities and applications. Food Chemistry, 2025. 488:144847.
[5] Zhou, D., Fei, Z., Liu, G., Jiang, Y., Jiang, W., Lin, C. S. K., … Jiang, M. (2024). The bioproduction of astaxanthin: A comprehensive review on the microbial synthesis and downstream extraction. Biotechnology Advances, 74.
[6] Consumer Affairs Agency: "Current Situation Regarding the Food Labeling System (16th Food Labeling Liaison Meeting Document 21)," [Consumer Affairs Agency], October 26, 2023,
[7] "Search — GRAS Notices (search: 'astaxanthin')", [U.S. Food & Drug Administration], 2017
[8] Safety of astaxanthin for its use as a novel food in food supplements, [European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)], [Published: February 5, 2020; Adopted: December 18, 2019].
[9]Davinelli S., Nielsen M. E., Scapagnini G. Astaxanthin in skin health, repair, and disease: a comprehensive review. Nutrients, 2018, 10(4):522.
[10] Li B., Chen C., Zhou X., Liu H., Zhou Z., Wang X., Liang J., Guo Y., Liang S. Effectiveness of astaxanthin as a feed supplement to improve growth performance and feed utilization in aquaculture animals: a meta-analysis. Antioxidants, 2025, 14(5):609.
[11] Stachowiak B., Szulc P. Astaxanthin for the food industry . Molecules, 2021, 26(9):2666.
[12] Lorenz, R. T. (1999). A Technical Review of Haematococcus Algae. NatuRose™ Technical Bulletin #060 (Kailua-Kona, HI: Cyanotech Corporation).
[13] Xiaoman. What Are the Sources of Astaxanthin? [Web Article], [ChemicalBook], 2024-04-15.
[14] Panagiotakopoulos I., Nasopoulou C. Extraction methods, encapsulation techniques, and health benefits of Astaxanthin . Sustainability, 2024, 16(24):10859.
[15]Jiang, W. et al. Research on the Cell Wall Breaking and Subcritical Extraction of Astaxanthin from Phaffia rhodozyma. Molecules 29, 4201 (2024).
[16] Abdullah C. N., Liu M., Chen Q., Gao S., Zhang C., Liu S., Zhou J., et al. Efficient production of astaxanthin in Yarrowia lipolytica through metabolic and enzyme engineering. Synthetic and Systems Biotechnology, 2025, 10(3):737–750.