In this generation of fast fashion, sustainability is slowly becoming a challenge. While there are sustainable brands and the raising of textile waste awareness, the public still remains slow on behavioral change. Our main goal here is to investigate the four different kinds of barriers: social, economic, psychological, and industrial that prevent people from taking action using our public survey, street survey, and stakeholder interview data and information. The main reason we try to find these barriers out is because it gives us a clear pathway of what we need to address directly; as a result, we address all these barriers by multiple event hosting and also through the stakeholders collaboration, enable the public to rethink and start to take action in this field. In addition, we also address the industrial barriers through developing enzymatic solutions, ensuring a full solution.
The following diagram shows a flow of our goal from literature review to the action we take. We first use our literature review to identify the four main barriers, and understand the gaps the public have toward sustainable fields. Then we design the questions based on our research, creating surveys and interviewing people. Later we analyze all the results then collect all the responses into graphs, conduct all these and also stakeholders interviews, so we can take action to actually solve the barriers identified.
Identify barriers
Survey & Interviews
& Conduct Interviews
Synthesize insights
Respond to barriers
Our research focuses on four key barriers that influence public attitudes and actions toward sustainable fashion:
| Aspect | Research question |
|---|---|
| Industrial | What are the main obstacles companies face when trying to implement new textile recycling technologies? |
| Societal | How do social norms and others’ views influence people’s willingness to adopt sustainable fashion? |
| Economic | How does affordability impact people's willingness to choose sustainable clothing? |
| Psychological | Do people believe their fashion choices make a real difference to the environment? |
We started this literature review to understand why change in fashion sustainability remains slow compared to the awareness that it grows. Our main goal is to identify obstacles that physically and mentally stop people from taking action and hence solve the roots of these barriers with our project. From existing studies and our own analysis (KAP survey, street interviews, and stakeholder discussions), we aim for four key aspects: industrial, societal, economic, and psychological barriers.
During the early stages of our degradation process, multiple issues arose that required pretreatment protocols, with the most alarming being crystallinity. Following crystallinity, the complexity and heterogeneity of textiles—including the addition of dye and other additives—pose as hindrances for enzymes like cutinases to act upon them. Separating the PET from blends and contaminants is also labor-intensive and unfeasible for large-scale recycling or upcycling. All of the aforementioned challenges called for pretreatments and new strategies to allow efficient, industrial-scale enzymatic degradation of textile blends.
Textile dye varies in many ways, and the present industrial focus varies for Azo dyes, reactive dyes, and basic dyes. Approaches can be physical, chemical, enzymatic, or integrative. Chemical stripping uses microwave energy and hydrolysis to break dye-fiber bonds(Akhtar et al., 2024), whereas enzymatic decolorization uses enzymes such as laccase or peroxidase to degrade dye molecules(The Hong Kong Research Institute of Textiles and Apparel, n.d.). Adsorption (with cotton, cellulose, or activated carbon) and coagulation-flocculation provide dye removal rates of up to 95%.
Crystallinity is a term used to define the degree of structural and molecular order and organization within a polymer. In crystalline regions, polymer chains are arranged in a highly-ordered and packed manner—much like the way atoms are arranged in a crystal. As a result of their dense structure, crystalline materials tend to be more rigid, less permeable, and melt at higher temperatures. On the other hand, amorphous regions lack the highly organized pattern crystalline regions possess, with polymer chains tangled and more randomly positioned. Hence, these areas are lower in strength and rigidity but higher in flexibility as well as permeability (Yuan & Xu, 2022). The degree of crystallinity (Xc) is often measured using various techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), alongside surface morphology analysis techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (Kong & Hay, 2002).
The subject of interest in our project, PET, is a type of polyester plastic with semi-crystallinity, comprising both amorphous and crystalline regions. Generally, PET has a crystallinity (Xc) of approximately 10-30% (Yuan & Xu, 2022). The higher the Xc is, the slower and more difficult the enzymatic degradation of PET is. Alarmingly, PET in textiles possesses exceedingly high tensile strength and thermal stability—both attributed to their higher-than-normal crystallinity. During the manufacturing of textiles, thermoplastics like PET undergo melt spinning, followed by cooling, drawing, and heating (Roungpaisan et al., 2023). In other words, polymer pellets or granules are melted, extruded through a spinneret, and solidified through cooling. In the cold drawing, PET filaments are mechanically stretched and undertake stress-induced crystallization, transforming the previously semi-crystalline or amorphous regions into regions with more ordered structures. After drawing, fibers are exposed to elevated temperatures and thus allows the growth of crystallites, further stabilizing the crystallinity.
As implied, the high crystallinity of textiles poses a major obstacle in our path to degrading blend textile waste containing PET, yielding fewer attackable sites for enzymes to act on and lower surface water plasticization. Besides the manufacturing process, the heterogeneous nature and morphology of textiles also slow the degradation process. As a way to increase the degradation rate of both our initial stage in degrading PET film and final stage of degrading textile blends, we chose to use alkali pretreatment (2024 TU Dresden team’s NaOH pretreatment protocol) in order to increase the surface hydrophilicity and water wettability (Donelli et al., 2010). To analyze our samples, we selected DSC and SEM as the techniques since the degree of crystallinity can be determined by the DSC curve, and the morphology shown by SEM can reveal whether surface degradation occurred or not.
The problem that the world faces is the increasing amount of textile waste. Over 92 million tons of textile waste are produced every year. However, less than 15% was recycled. The small fraction of textiles being recycled is usually caused by the inefficient system of collection, sorting, and separation.
Collection is a process that gathers textile waste from both producers and consumers. The current problem within this process is the inadequate recycling infrastructure to accommodate the sheer volume of fast fashion waste. In response to this, governments aim to create a circular system with brands. This includes plans for product take-back programs, repair services, and resale platforms. Famous brands such as IKEA offer options to trade in or buy second-hand goods, and the fashion giant H&M launched a garment collection program to encourage customers to return unwanted clothes and textiles in exchange for vouchers.
In Taiwan, problems with the collection system also exist. Even though there are many recycling bins for clothes, the actual amount that can be recycled is low. Only less than 30 percent of clothes can be recycled due to inefficient collection. The problem is often caused by the highly selective process that discards a larger portion of low-quality clothing that can actually be used.
Sorting is the second process of textile recycling. Textile wastes are sorted by fibre compositions and color properties. NIR and RBG cameras are used in the industry for the analysis. Internationally, challenges now include high costs of the sorting process, and the lack of accuracy in identification due to the fact that many textiles are blended.
In Taiwan, the main challenge is the lack of awareness, and the complicated process of sorting keeps consumers, producers, and even recycling firms away from committing to managing the sorting process. This problem can be solved by using novel AI systems, enhancing the efficiency and accuracy of sorting clothes. For example, the REFIT Smart Clothing Recycling Box can detect the composition of cloth. The bins can help establish a standardized and efficient process for sorting. They are placed in several public spaces in Taiwan. However, they are not yet popularized due to their high technical cost and lack of suitable demonstration sites.
Separating is a process that separates PET and cotton, and then spins them into fibers, such as viscose and lyocell, which could be remade back to clothes. The current approach is using hot water and eco-friendly chemicals to recover PET and cotton, after polyester breaks down; while PET goes to the liquid stream and cotton goes to the solid stream. However, some of the challenges include the complexity of separating and purifying dyes and other additives, the limited usability of the recycled fibers in high-quality textile applications because fiber often loses strength and quality, and the higher cost of the recycling process, which is more expensive than producing virgin materials.
The same problem occurs in Taiwan, where the T/C Fabric Efficient Separation and Recycled Technology is applied. This technology can efficiently separate two types of fabric in an independent system. The polyester can be recycled for reuse, replacing raw materials in industries. While it can separate different blends into reusable materials, it’s not cost efficient and not yet popularized.
The challenges faced during the recycling of textile waste require pretreatment to facilitate degradation. The process of pretreatment focuses on removing dye, alleviating the problem of crystallinity, and improving the recycling system through collecting, sorting, and separating. Removing dye can be done using physical, chemical, enzymatic, or integrative methods. Crystallinity can be addressed by using NaOH pretreatment that increases the surface hydrophilicity and water wettability. Furthermore, collecting, sorting, and separating are necessary steps taken before other pretreatments and actual degradation that necessitate more efficient approaches.
Textile waste degradation plays a critical role in addressing the environmental impact of fast fashion and wasteful disposal practices. Currently, three primary degradation practices are used in the industry: mechanical, chemical, and biological. 43% of textile recycling studies use mechanical degradation, compared to 38% for chemical and 14% for biological methods, making it the most widely-used method in both research and practice (Dissanayake & Weerasinghe, 2021). While each method has advantages, they also pose challenges in sustainability, material recovery, and feasibility.
Mechanical degradation involves physically processing textiles through sorting, shredding, tearing, and carding to recover fibers (Damayanti et al., 2021). While cost-effective and simple, it shortens fiber length and degrades quality, resulting in downcycling where the recovered fibers turn into lower-value products like stuffing or industrial rags. It cannot efficiently handle blended fabrics, and the final outputs often lack the strength or purity required for reuse in new garments (Choudhury et al., 2024).
Chemical degradation uses chemical processes like glycolysis and methanolysis to break down textile polymers into monomers, which are then purified and repolymerized. This process creates high-quality, virgin-equivalent fibers, especially from synthetic fibers like PET. Up to 70% of glucose can be recovered from cotton using techniques like acid hydrolysis, while 95% of polyester can be recovered with solvent-based techniques. However, it remains costly, energy-intensive, and limited in scale, making it difficult for widespread adoption (Ghosh et al., 2025).
Biological degradation uses enzymatic processes or microbial activity to break down natural and synthetic textile fibers into their basic building blocks. This method offers a more environmentally friendly alternative to chemical degradation, operating under milder conditions and producing fewer toxic byproducts. Enzymes such as cellulases, lipases, and cutinases have been shown to effectively degrade cellulose-based materials like cotton and certain synthetic polymers like polyester. For example, cutinases derived from Thermobifida fusca (TfCut2) have demonstrated effective PET depolymerization, particularly when optimized through protein engineering (Uchida et al., 2021).
A recent review on circularity in textile waste management emphasizes biological degradation as a promising strategy, especially for blended textiles that are difficult to process using mechanical or chemical methods alone. These systems can be tailored to selectively degrade one fiber type within a mixed fabric, improving monomer recovery and minimizing environmental impact. Nevertheless, challenges remain, including slow reaction rates, limited penetration into multi-layered fabrics, and scalability. Continued advancements in enzyme engineering and synthetic biology are essential to realize the full potential of biological degradation in industrial textile recycling.
One of the primary challenges in the biological degradation of synthetic textiles, especially those made from polyethylene terephthalate (PET), is the inefficiency of enzymes to break down highly stable polymers. While enzymatic degradation offers a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative to chemical and mechanical recycling, most PET-degrading enzymes, like cutinases or PETases, show limited activity under industrial conditions (Kawai et al., 2019). The crystalline and hydrophobic nature of PET in textiles makes it particularly resistant to enzymatic degradation. Furthermore, even when enzymes demonstrate promising activity in lab conditions, they may fail to effectively degrade PET in textiles, which has a higher crystallinity and additional processing additives that inhibit enzyme access.
In conclusion, each textile degradation method has strengths and challenges. Mechanical recycling is simple and cost-effective, but the problem is it lowers fiber quality and can be a struggle when with blends. Chemical methods yield high quality fibers but are costly and the most environmentally harmful. Biological degradation offers a more environmentally friendly alternative with selective fiber breakdown but faces limits in enzyme efficiency and scalability.
The separation and purification of TPA and EG are key steps in PET upcycling. TPA can be separated using precipitation with strong acids, while EG is isolated through distillation based on its boiling point. Having High purity of both components is important to ensure the quality and performance of the repolymerized PET, making its quality comparably equivalent to virgin plastic.
TPA:
TPA can be extracted and separated from EG and other plastic monomers through precipitation, a method
using acetic acid to achieve a high yield of TPA. Higher temperatures (less than 100 °C) are found to
improve particle size and filtration. By using strong acids like HCl or H₂SO₄, with a pH of 2 or lower
for precipitation to occur, then heating the solution to 60–90 °C and allowing it to stand for 1–2
hours; this enhances the precipitation effectiveness.
EG:
EG can be separated from MHET using distillation and condensation based on their differing boiling
points: EG has a boiling point of 197 °C, while MHET boils at 230–240 °C. The significant difference
between their boiling points allows EG to evaporate during the heating process, while MHET remains in
the distillation flask. Then the EG vapor can be condensed and collected separately, effectively
isolating it from MHET without losing its purity and quality.
To complete the cycle of upcycling, repolymerization of TPA and EG after degrading from recycled PET purity is critical because it influences PET quality. Impurities in TPA and EG can reduce the quality, strength, and safety of the repolymerized PET; hence, high purity is required. Contaminants can disrupt polymer chain formation, resulting in flaws in the plastic structure, lower molecular weight, discolouration, or brittleness. Maintaining high monomer purity means that regenerated PET operates similarly to virgin plastic, promoting sustainability while preserving material quality.
The separation and purification of TPA and EG play a crucial role in determining the quality of the final product. Using methods such as precipitation and distillation ensure that these monomers are recovered in a pure form; free from contaminants that could affect repolymerization. High-purity TPA and EG enable the production of recycled PET to maintain virgin strength, durability, and appearance. In addition, high purity monomers enhance the performance of the recycled material but also supports a more sustainable and efficient circular economy for plastics.
Consumers’ attitudes toward second-hand clothing are strongly influenced by cultural perceptions and social norms, which vary across geographic and demographic lines.
A comparative study between American and Chinese young consumers found that while Western youth increasingly embrace pre-owned fashion as both sustainable and stylish, their Chinese counterparts often view it more conservatively (Sun et al., 2022). In many Asia-Pacific countries, second-hand clothing is still associated with low socioeconomic status, particularly among older generations who place greater value on new clothing as a symbol of success (Credence Research Inc., 2020).
The theory of subjective norms suggests that individuals are influenced by what they believe their peers and family expect them to do. For Gen Z consumers, both descriptive norms (what others do) and injunctive norms (what others think they should do) play a significant role in sustainable fashion choices (Liu & Yan, 2021; Zhang & Wei, 2023). A case study in China showed that positive peer influence and parental encouragement can increase willingness to donate, reuse, or purchase second-hand clothing (Wang et al., 2020).
A major barrier to second-hand clothing adoption is the perception from the public, especially concerns around hygiene, quality, and social judgment. Among environmentally aware consumers, many associate thrift shopping with shame, embarrassment, or poor personal image (Chen et al., 2021; Zhou et al., 2020). These marks are especially exaggerated in cultures where new clothing signals wealth or status.
Beyond economic or environmental motivations, ethical and introspective drivers also shape consumer behavior. Studies applying mindful consumption frameworks in China found that self-reflection, along with social support, positively influences intentions to buy second-hand clothing (Wu & Lin, 2022). In the UK, research grounded in virtue ethics revealed that consumers often navigate emotional tension, balancing guilt, pleasure, and moral identity, when choosing reused clothes (Thompson, 2019).
To better understand public attitudes toward second-hand clothing and sustainable fashion, we started by conducting a comprehensive literature review on the social and cultural barriers to textile circularity. This included digging into research topics such as stigma around used clothing in East Asia, the role of peer and family influence, hygiene-related risk perceptions, and frameworks like mindful consumption and virtue ethics. The review helped us identify key factors that affect public willingness to adopt recycled or second-hand fashion.
Based on these findings, we designed and executed two complementary public engagement tools:
Through the combination of academic research, in-person dialogue, and data collection, we developed a deeper understanding of the social barriers and motivators influencing textile waste behavior. This instructed the way we framed our project, modified educational materials, and approached stakeholder communication.
Price plays a significant role in the decision of customers, especially youngsters, to purchase or not purchase clothing. The literature suggests that high price is one of the significant barriers to the adoption of sustainable behavior, and young consumers are even more price-sensitive. (Sheoran & Kumar, 2020) This indicates the economic obstacles to customers who tend to pick more affordable, available fast fashion products over more expensive, sustainable products, not just restricting the uptake of greener options but also reaffirming unsustainable consumption.
As the market for fast fashion keeps expanding exponentially, consumers are getting increasingly addicted to the cheap, accessible nature of fast fashion clothing. Consumers are conditioned through the culture of cheap and frequent purchasing, which makes them less willing to buy sustainable clothing. Over time, the practice makes disposable fashion normal and decreases consumer exposure to sustainable fashion. Thus, this raises the fast fashion affordability trap and decreases the popularity of sustainable fashion.
Willingness to Pay (WTP) is how much more or less a customer is willing to spend for circular economy products compared to conventional ones. Past Research (Toth-Peter et al., 2025) shows that WTP is influenced by several factors including demographics (ex. social class, education), perception of product performance, and environmental impact. Typically, WTP is found to range from +10% to +30%. Following this scale, our research categorizes WTP in intervals of five percent and our results generally agree with the range from +0% to +30%.
Our analysis of the economic barrier responds to our research question by using studies to reveal how price sensitivity and market shape consumer behavior. Research shows that young consumers care about price the most, often choosing cheaper fast fashion over sustainable options (Sheoran & Kumar, 2020). This gap has created the “fast fashion affordability trap,” where frequent exposure to the low cost clothing normalizes the unsustainable patterns. In addition, willingness-to-pay (WTP) studies show that while most consumers support sustainability, they are typically only willing to pay 0–30% more for eco-friendly products. Together, these findings show that affordability doesn’t just limit people’s ability to buy sustainable clothing and also shapes the way they behave, making them more used to disposable fashion and less likely to change their habits.
According to the theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), people's thoughts and emotions of themselves and others, all influence their behavior (Lindenberg & Steg, 2007). The behavioral control or the degree to which a person believes that their actions will truly have a change is an important part of the model. According to the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991), behaviors are influenced by intentions, which are determined by three factors: attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. It is also possible for external factors to directly force or prevent behaviors, regardless of the intention, depending on the degree to which a behavior is actually controlled by the individual, and the degree to which perceived behavioral control is an accurate measure of actual behavioral control. So even if people care about the environment, they are less likely to take action if they don't think they have the power (Ajzen, 2005). Below is a figure that can show the TPB model clearly.
Fig 1. Theory of Planned Behavior
Attitude–behavior pathway based on the Theory of Planned Behavior. From “The influence of attitudes on behavior,” by I. Ajzen, 2005, in D. Albarracín, B. T. Johnson, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), The Handbook of Attitudes. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264000974_The_Influence_of_Attitudes_on_Behavior).
Based on the research, we develop surveys and interviews that can see people’s attitude toward sustainability, in order for us to tell what they think about our field and what their behaviors are. To know how their intentions reflect on their behaviors would be our main goal, in order for us to know if they do believe that their fashion choices would make a difference, and even take action to support.
Synthetic textiles, including polyester, nylon, acrylic, and spandex, make up a large majority of modern clothing. While they are functional and cost-effective, most consumers are not aware that synthetic textiles are made of plastic and contribute significantly to microplastic pollution. Many underestimate the scale of textile-based pollution, including microfiber shedding, environmental persistence, and its entry into food chains. Some are not even aware of what microplastics are. Surveys show approximately 44% of people in the UK don’t know that synthetic fibers (like polyester or acrylic) are plastics (Marsh, 2018). Only around 56% recognize microfibers, the tiny threads of plastic, as environmental pollutants. Additionally, polyester tends to be used around us now, knowing that in the mid‑2020s, synthetic fibers will make up about 60–69% of global clothing materials and projected to rise to 75% by 2030 (Allen et al., 2024). The increasing amount of polyester directly leads to more microfiber releasing to the environment. Textile waste is causing considerable environmental concerns because even routine activities like washing clothes contribute to microplastic pollution. A single polyester garment can release over 700,000 microfibers in just one wash. Globally, an estimated 0.2–0.5 million tonnes of textile microfibres enter oceans every year. These fibers make up about 35% of marine microplastic pollution. This highlights how the fashion and textile industry is not only generating visible waste but also bringing an invisible crisis that threatens marine ecosystems (European Environment Agency, 2022).
While textile waste contributes heavily to microplastic pollution, public knowledge about the issue remains limited. Surveys of future public health professionals show that about 25% had never heard of microplastics. On top of that, even among those aware, the overall knowledge scores were low (Cammalleri et al., 2020). Noticeably, although many people express general concern about microplastic pollution, only a few are able to connect microplastic to textiles (Sataman, 2025). This gap between awareness and actionable understanding highlights why public education on textile waste is critical.
Many people hold misconceptions that downplay the seriousness of textile waste, believing it is insignificant or that fixes like laundry filters and recycled fabrics are enough. In reality, synthetic fibers account for 62% of global fiber production, yet less than 15% of textiles are recycled, with most ending up in landfills or incinerators (Première Vision, 2025). While filters or washing bags can reduce fiber shedding, it is not enough to address this problem since manufacturing and first-use washes release large amounts of microfibers. The misconceptions create a false sense of security that slows innovation, weakens public demand for systemic change, and shifts responsibility away from industry. This leads to underestimation of textile waste, allowing the problem to continue, putting both environmental and people’s health in risk.
Being aware of environmental problems can sometimes have the opposite effect of what we want. Instead of encouraging action, it can make people feel overwhelmed by the distress caused by climate change where people are becoming anxious about their future (Coffey et al., Understanding eco-anxiety: A systematic scoping review of current literature and identified knowledge gaps - sciencedirect 2021), and so this is called eco-anxiety. Another term is when people hear too much bad news about certain things and don’t know what to do about it, they start feeling powerless, this is called eco-paralyzed. Eco-paralyzed may not be unconcerned about environmental changes but rather feel helpless in translating their concerns into meaningful behaviors. (Li et al., Full article: Understanding tourists’ eco-paralysis, environmental concern, and pro-environmental behavior: An explanatory sequential mixed methods study 2023). And this can turn into action fatigue, where people give up even though they actually care.
According to the American psychological association “At home and in the community, people can take actions in their everyday lives to buffer against some of the projected impacts, and these actions can also provide a greater sense of individual security and control.” (Mental health and our changing climate: 2017) This is why our project wants to focus on simple messages for people to know, like explaining how fabrics are made of plastic, and showing what people can actually help with. As a result, this can make people feel more connected to this world and make actual improvement.
To sum up, we identify three major psychological barriers that often prevent people from taking actions. First, according to the Theory of Planned Behavior, many people feel like their actions are too small to make a difference, so they would be in a state of caring but not doing. Second, there are misconceptions in public knowledge, many do not realize textiles are plastics related. Third, people who are exposed to negative environmental views can experience action fatigue, they can feel hopeless toward the situation. These insights change how we designed our surveys and interviews. Instead of asking about their general concern, which focused on whether people believe their choices can create a real change to current issues, whether they understand textiles in microplastic pollution and how they respond to these issues. By this, we can better identify barriers behind inaction and people's thoughts.
We designed a mixed-methods approach to gather both qualitative insights and quantitative data from urban residents in Taiwan.
To collect quantitative data that supports our social research, we conducted a survey of the general public through the KAP model (Knowledge–Attitude–Practice). The KAP (Knowledge–Attitude–Practice) model is a widely used framework in behavioral and social research to evaluate what people know about an issue (Knowledge), how they feel about it (Attitude), and how they act in response (Practice). It helps identify gaps between awareness and behavior, offering insights into how education and communication strategies can promote positive change. Through structured surveys, the KAP model allows researchers to measure the relationship between knowledge, perception, and action within specific contexts such as public health or environmental sustainability (Launiala, 2009).
We designed it using Google Form and distributed it among the public to understand their knowledge of sustainable fashion and attitudes and practice towards sustainable fashion. It was a set of Likert-scale items that allowed us to accurately measure these three dimensions. To enable demographic analysis, we also briefly asked participants about their personal information and shopping habits. This enabled us to analyze how social groups perceive and respond to sustainable fashion.
We interviewed the general public of both ages with various educational backgrounds to increase awareness of textile waste in order to find out the degree of knowledge and awareness of textile pollution among the public.
This questionnaire is a sign of how important and relevant our project is to the world and to Taiwan. We divided the survey into knowledge, attitude, social obstacles, and practice because we wanted to know how much people are aware of textile pollution, how they would react to textile pollution, what social obstacles there are to dealing with textile pollution, and what they would do in order to deal with textile pollution.
We executed street interviews along busy areas of Taipei such as Xinyi District, Zhongshan District, Miramar, and Ximending in an attempt to obtain various consumer insights regarding sustainable fashion.
They were chosen for the mix of upmarket consumers, young fashion culture, and mass market consumers, providing a broad social sample. Our questions were grouped under three themes: Personal Behavior & Social Norms (to see cultural attitude, stigma, and social influence towards second-hand or repaired clothes), Affordability & Economic Barriers (to gauge the impact of price sensitivity and other fast fashion alternatives on purchasing behavior), and Environmental Awareness & Belief in Individual Impact (to test knowledge of fabric pollution and consumers' perception of whether their actions will impact versus corporations). Collectively, this approach enabled us to see how social norms, economic pressures, and environmental consciousness interrelate to impact the adoption of sustainable fashion in Taiwan.
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To connect our wet lab work with real-world needs, we reached out to a range of industrial stakeholders involved in textile recycling and sustainability. The purpose of these interviews was to understand the major obstacles companies face when adopting new recycling technologies, and to interpret how our enzymatic degradation system could solve these issues and align with industrial expectations. We invited experts from textile institutes, recycling companies, and sustainable fashion brands, such as the Taiwan Textile Research Institute, Breaking Jiutai and Kingwhale.
By reviewing the feedback shared by these stakeholders, we were able to gain more insights on technical barriers, including crystallinity, pretreatment, and fiber quality, as well as broader industrial issues like labor costs and environmental concerns. This approach not only ensured that our project design was based on current field challenges, but also connected with our IHP work by shaping our implementation planning. Through this process, stakeholder perspectives guided us toward approaches that consider both scientific and technical feasibility.
Developing new textile recycling technologies involves dealing with a mix of scientific, industrial, and economic challenges. Experts and companies we interviewed reminded us that scalability, cost, and credibility all play a crucial role for real-world adoption.
According to Professor Wolfgang Zimmermann, high-crystallinity PET is largely inaccessible to enzymes without pretreatment and requires higher temperatures (~60–65 °C) than many lab setups currently use, making industrial application more difficult. Director Jo-Hua Lee from Taiwan Textile Research Institute (TTRI) also explained that fabric treatments like wrinkle resistance or waterproof coatings create obstacles for recycling, meaning thorough pretreatment is needed before enzymes or chemicals can reach the fiber underneath. Dr. Chu highlighted that sorting blended textiles is another key barrier in Taiwan, since current NIR technology only works for single-material plastics, while more advanced methods like Raman spectroscopy are too slow for large-scale use. Chairman Wu from Jiutai pointed out the involvement of human labor to detach the non- recyclable parts of clothes is a key barrier for the company, since the clothes are hard to separate even with advanced tools like spectrometers. Furthermore, the lack of government subsidies or incentive programs, unlike the system in place for PET bottles, makes textile recycling even less viable.
Once pretreated, the challenge shifts to the actual degradation process. Professor Gregg Beckham noted that PET and cotton cannot realistically be degraded together in one system because of incompatible pH and temperature conditions. New Fibers Textile and Mr. Liang (TTRI) explained that although mechanical recycling is similar and cheap, it lowers fiber quality and cannot process colored or contaminated fabrics, while chemical recycling scales better but is energy-intensive and less effective on blends. On the other hand, biological recycling offers high purity and lower energy use, but it remains slow, depends on pretreatment, and faces instability from byproducts like TPA. Moreover, Twine stressed how high labor costs and uncertain market acceptance are major challenges, making companies hesitant to invest in new recycling methods.
Mr. Huang from Kingwhale emphasized that high cost is one of the biggest obstacles that hinder the current development of textile degradation. Currently, recycling textile costs dramatically more than producing new PET textile from oil, due to expense of pretreatment, elongated production process, and the fact that recycled textile production is consistently outcompeted by virgin textile manufacturing. Decades of industrial optimization, abundant supply chains, and economies of scale have already lowered virgin polyester prices, but recycling still remains at a small scale with higher operational costs.
As a result, clothing created using recycled textiles is often more expensive than products made with virgin polyester, reducing consumer demand. While some eco-friendly brands have invested in these materials for sustainability, most companies remain hesitant to adopt these technologies due to the additional production cost and lack of consumer interest. Huang noted that without stronger financial incentives such as government subsidies or increasing consumer interest, it will remain difficult for textile recycling to compete with conventional production on a large scale.
Finally, stakeholders pointed to challenges in ensuring that recycled outputs meet environmental and industrial standards. Both New Fibers Textile and Director Lee emphasized that environmental claims must be supported by standardized life cycle assessments and ISO-based metrics, because without clear evidence, companies may face accusations of greenwashing. Professor Wolfgang Zimmerman stated that although recovering TPA is realistic, full monomer purification like EG separation is not feasible within iGEM’s scope. Lastly, Dr. Vaskar Gnyawali from Breaking highlighted that TPA accumulation can lower pH and destabilize enzymes, making pH control and byproduct management crucial.
Together, these insights highlight why industrial barriers remain the biggest issue for textile recycling. New technologies must not only work in the lab, but also be practical and affordable in industry.
| Method Approach | Responses |
|---|---|
| Street Interviews | Thematic coding by barrier type (price, trust, social acceptance) |
| Survey Responses | Likert averages, demographic cross-tabs, barrier frequency analysis |
| Stakeholder Insights | Qualitative summarization; quote callouts linked to wet lab feasibility |
We collected 706 responses from public surveys via Google form who were mostly mature adults (45-54) and young people of 18 years and below, with most of the responses coming from residents of Taipei, foreign countries, and New Taipei City. The result of the survey are shown below:
Fig 2. Willing to take action to reduce textile pollution
According to the research almost all of the participants (72.7%) expressed an intense motivation to decrease textile pollution (scoring 4 and 5). Just 9% showed little to no willingness (scores 1 and 2), compared to about 19% who were somewhat willing (scoring 3).
Considering these differences, we focused on inspiring those who were less likely to take action. We developed online games at our Dadaocheng events public booths to help people understand the problem of textile microplastics. From highlighting the negative effects of textile waste on the environment and human health, we encouraged others to switch from only worrying to active engagement in sustainable textile approaches by making the issue readily available.
Fig 3. Willing to buy products made of recycled, reused or recovered materials?
The survey showed that nearly 68% of respondents have a strong willingness (scores 4 and 5) to purchase products made from recycled, reused, or recovered materials. About 20% were somewhat willing, and only around 13% showed low or no willingness.
This highlights a possible opportunity to expand the sustainable consumer markets. In order for us to motivate these kinds of groups, our outreach focus on the product's long term value. For example, at our event booths, we showed everyday items handmade from recycled textiles, letting people experience designing with their own hand. Connecting sustainability with benefits, we want to increase the acceptance to choose recycled products in daily life.
Fig 4. Why don’t you buy products made of reused, recycled, or recovered materials?
The survey revealed that the most important barrier to purchasing recycled products is the cost, with 43.3% of respondents responding that higher prices makes them avoid buying these products. And 30% raised concerns about product quality, showing a perception that recycled materials may not be usable as well as the new ones. Also, 11.3% of respondents showed doubt that buying such products would make a meaningful environmental impact, and 15.3% cited other reasons such as limited availability or lack of good options.
These findings show the need for solutions that solve the economic and thought barriers. In our outreach, we aimed to demonstrate not only the value of recycled textiles to the environment but also their durability. By showing affordable and usable recycled products, we want to reduce skepticism and increase the consumers' acceptance.
Fig 5. Price willingness to pay if the product was made of recycled materials?
The survey revealed that most respondents (39.8%) only consider buying recycled products if they were the same cost as new ones. About 31.6% were open to paying a little bit more(+10% or +20%), while 28.6% felt that such products should actually be cheaper (–10% or –20%).
This finding shows a common problem in promoting recycled textiles: although consumers show willingness to support sustainable products, their price expectations are too conservative. Many believe the materials should not cost more, and a portion even wants them to be cheaper. This shows the importance of making recycled textiles having an affordable price, while also showing the benefits of recycled products.
Fig 6. What barriers prevent you from recycling textile waste?
The survey identified many barriers that often prevent people from recycling textile waste. The biggest issue is the lack of accessible recycling facilities (57.6%), followed by lack of clear information on how to recycle (45.8%) and the inconvenience of the process (37%). These results show that even motivated people often face challenges that limit them from acting. There's also 22% of respondents point out the lack of support from industry, some groups also have doubts about the effectiveness of recycling (13.5%), cultural norms (13.2%), and economic constraints (12.5%).
These findings show us that textile recycling is not only a question of our motivation but also of the accessibility and the trust in outcomes. Our project solves these gaps by providing some educational resources (games, collaborating with industry to host events, youtube channel, posts) to form more recycling solutions that are friendly to consumers.
Overall, the street interviews revealed that while many participants are aware of sustainability issues, social attitudes, economic constraints, and personal habits still limit action toward sustainable fashion. When asked about wearing second-hand clothing, most respondents declined, commonly citing hygiene or unfamiliarity—one participant in Xinyi District remarked, “I feel like second-hand clothes are not very clean, and I prefer buying new ones if the price is reasonable.” Fashion choices were mainly driven by style and price, with one young shopper in Ximending admitting, “I buy what looks good first and if it happens to be sustainable, that’s a bonus.”
Economics also played a decisive role: over half of respondents were unwilling to pay extra for sustainable garments, and others noted that fast fashion remains too convenient to resist. A respondent from Miramar explained, “I know sustainable brands exist, but fast fashion is cheaper and always nearby—it’s hard to change.” Even when greener options were available from major brands, most said they would only consider them if quality and price were comparable, underscoring price sensitivity and limited willingness to compromise for sustainability.
Finally, on environmental perception, while some participants recognized that buying less reduces waste, others remained skeptical or indifferent. A middle-aged interviewee in Zhongshan commented, “I don’t think my small shopping habits will change the planet, it’s the big companies that should take action.”, while another interviewee stated “It depends what you know and the education you received that impacts your behavior and beliefs.” These perspectives collectively show that despite rising environmental awareness, social norms, affordability, education, and perceived individual power continue to shape the slow adoption of sustainable fashion in Taipei.
To better illustrate these observed patterns, the following figures present the quantitative distribution of responses collected across the three thematic aspects—Behavior and Social Norms, Affordability and Economic Factors, and Environmental Awareness. These charts visualize how participants’ attitudes, preferences, and beliefs translate into measurable trends, highlighting the interplay between style-driven consumption, price sensitivity, and varying levels of environmental concern. Each figure corresponds to one of the core themes identified in our methodology, allowing a closer examination of how individual motivations and social perceptions collectively shape consumer behavior toward sustainable fashion in Taipei.
Fig 7. Do you wear second hand clothes? Why or why not?
According to this graph, we can tell that most people don't want to wear second hand clothes, mainly because of no experience, lack of knowledge, and also hygiene concerns. This shows us a clear acceptance gap, as many people are unfamiliar with the idea of this type of clothing even though they know it plays an important role in reducing textile waste.
This graph shows us that we have to fix the societal barriers of people who are unfamiliar with second hand clothing. We solved this using multiple methods, for example: selling second hand clothing to let people know they are still useful and clean; changing second hand clothes into small accessories in our event booth to show they are still usable to make fashion items; and educating the public by introducing professors like Dr. Liang to emphasize the importance of choosing second hand over fast fashion clothes.
Fig 8. What influences your fashion choices the most?
The responses suggest that style is the most important thing that shapes people's fashion choices, followed by price. This shows that people care deeply about appearance and affordability, but not really how sustainable a cloth is.
From our survey response we can know that style and price are the most important things consumers care about. We aim to not change what consumers are thinking but let them know that sustainable clothing also has all these, the problem is just the price. However, sustainable clothing can’t be as cheap as fast fashion clothes, and most of the people do not know the progress required to make fashion and also sustainable clothes. That’s why we set our event location of Dadaocheng at StoryWear, we want to show the public that sustainable fashion can have good style and can be comforting.
Fig 9. How much more would you be willing to pay for the sustainable item compared to a fast fashion item?
From this graph, we can tell that the largest group of respondents are unwilling to pay any extra (0%) for sustainable items compared to fast fashion. A smaller group is willing to pay 5% more (6 people), and even fewer would accept 10% (3 people) or 15% or more (4 people). In addition, 5 respondents said their decision depends on other factors such as style and material.This indicates that while some are open to spending a little more for the environment, the majority still show the unwillingness to pay higher than fast fashion.
We aim to solve this affordability and economic barriers by introducing Dr. Liang gave a speech at our Dadaocheng event. He explained the reason why sustainable clothing being this expensive, the process involved is really complex compared to fast fashion clothing. In order to solve this environmental issue people should try to support these kinds of clothes, and know the reason for the price being higher than fast fashion clothes.
Fig 10. Why is it hard for people to reduce clothing waste?
The results show that the most common reason people think it's difficult to reduce clothing waste is the easy accessibility of fast fashion (10 people). Other reasons include the influence of trends (7 people) and the lack of awareness (5 people). A small number of people believe lifestyle changes (2 people) is a barrier.
In response, we solve these problems from different angles. For fast fashion’s accessibility, we used our education and event booths to show that its convenience has really serious environmental costs. For the influence of trends, we held our Dadaocheng event at StoryWear, showing the public that sustainable fashion can be just as stylish. And for the lack of awareness, we believe government promotion is needed, but we also promote through our own outreach like education and event speech promotion, to spread more knowledge about sustainable choices as much as we can.
Fig 11. If fast fashion brands offer greener options, would you be more likely to buy them? Why or why not?
From this chart, we can tell that while some respondents would be more likely to buy greener fast fashion options for reasons such as if there is higher quality (5 people) or eco-friendliness (6 people), a larger group remain unconvinced. Some respondents stated they do not care about sustainability, and the largest group (12 people) said their decision would still depend on other reasons like style or price.
Fig 12. Do you think each clothing purchase you make has an enviormental impact? Does buying less actually help?
The results show a difference in thoughts on fashion’s environmental impact. Around 11 respondents agreed that each purchase is important, and believes that buying less means fewer clothes will be thrown away. On the other hand, 16 respondents disagreed, and many said they had not thought about it or believed clothing purchases had no impact on the environment.
Industrial barriers pose one of the biggest challenges to textile recycling. Pretreatment will need to overcome crystallinity, dyes, and coatings. All degradation processes have different trade-offs. Mechanical recycling is cheap but decreases fiber quality, chemical recycling is scalable but energy-consuming, and biological recycling is cleaner but slow and difficult to scale.
Post-treatment also adds challenges, since outputs must meet high purity standards in order to be credible and industrially attractive. Development will depend on the integration of pretreatment, utilizing a variety of degradation methods, and rigorous post-treatment to bridge the gap between lab success and industrial adoption.
Our project aims to solve these barriers by developing an enzymatic system for textile recycling that addresses key industrial barriers. For instance, we incorporated a thermal-alkaline pretreatment method to decrease the crystallinity of PET pretreatment to handle the high crystallinity of PET (Results) to handle the high crystallinity of PET, and use selective enzyme degradation (Parts) to efficiently break down specific polymers. Our approach helps to improve the consistency and scalability of textile recycling in real-world industries.
Looking ahead, several areas remain beyond the scope of our project. Full-scale pretreatment for dyes, coatings, and blended textiles as well as complete post-treatment workflows will require more advanced technologies to fulfill.
From our street survey, we saw that many people still avoid second hand clothes because they’ve never tried them, or are worried about how clean they are, or simply follow the trends. To challenge these perceptions, we educate people using the Dadaocheng event (Education). We host the event at StoryWear, which is a sustainable fashion store, a Taiwanese sustainable fashion brand transforming discarded textiles into stylish clothing, this brand making new clothes with 100% recycled denim and handmade by a local disadvantaged group of women. We can in turn let visitors experience second hand clothes that could also be decent, fashionable and how personal choice on sustainable fashion could bring goods to both the environment and society. Once people could really see and touch the clothes, their conversation shifted from doubts to understanding. For the long term, we expect more brands to contribute to the promotion, so more people would understand the reason behind buying every second hand clothes.
The economic barrier is that most people told us they’d only buy recycled products if the cost was the same as fast fashion, and some even want them to be cheaper. This is due to the knowledge gap people have, they don’t know the "environmental cost” of fast fashion price and the “production cost” of sustainable textile. At our Dadaocheng event, we invited Dr. Liang to explain why sustainable fashion tends to cost more, from labor to recycling processes, while we showed affordable and durable accessories made from second-hand textiles in the handcraft booth and pop-up booth from Twine. In the lab, we started testing enzyme-based PET–cotton degradation using TfCut as a possible way to cut down costs in the future. We hope to help people understand the reason behind the price tag and even support. Next, we want to make pricings even lower by reducing production costs in the long term.
The challenge is that many people either question whether their choices make a difference or don't even link their fashion choice to the environmental impact. To solve this, we designed a microplastics game that showed how everyday choices connect to pollution. Our ultimate goal is to not just raise awareness about textile pollution, but people can also be aware of what is happening currently in this field. In addition, we also invite Dr.Liang to explain the current issue of the textile field, which is the overproduction of wasted clothing and the environmental issue it resulted in, hoping people ended with action. In addition, we also host education events (Education) to teach students the issue we have about textile waste globally, showing how individual action could make a difference. These turned the hopelessness of the public into first steps of taking action. In the future, we hope to see people that really start to do it instead of only thinking about the problem.
Taiwan is taking major steps to transform its textile industry through circular economy initiatives. By promoting sustainable design, recycling innovation, and cross-industry collaboration, the government is laying the foundation for a low-waste, high-efficiency textile system. These efforts support long-term goals like net-zero emissions and position Taiwan as a global model for responsible textile production and reuse.
In Taiwan, the issue of managing collected used clothing has become increasingly pressing. According to the Environmental Protection Administration, 78,000 metric tons of used clothing were collected in 2020, marking a decade-high. However, with declining demand in international second-hand markets, approximately 35% of these garments are incinerated due to lack of alternative disposal methods. Despite these challenges, Taiwan’s leadership in functional fabrics positions it well to invest in textile recycling, transforming “Made in Taiwan” into a unique “Taiwan Circular” value proposition (Circular Economy Promotion Office, n.d.; Circular Taiwan Network, n.d.-b).
Source: Greenpeace East Asia survey (2016), reported by Taipei Times
In previously conducted social research, Taiwanese people aged 20 to 45 own an average of 75 items of clothing, with about 15 of them rarely worn. On average, 10 garments are discarded per person each year (Taipei Times, as cited in Greenpeace survey; Circular Taiwan Network, n.d.-b). These numbers provide the baseline, but the more detailed age-to-wardrobe relationships shown in our graph come from a simulation we built on top of this data. In our model, clothing ownership increases through the twenties and peaks in the early thirties, when career and social activities often expand the need for variety. After this point, the total number of clothes begins to decline slightly as people in their forties become more selective. The proportion of rarely worn clothes is highest among younger adults, who are more likely to purchase impulsively, but it decreases with age as choices become more practical. Annual discards follow a similar pattern: younger adults tend to throw away more because of fast fashion cycles, while older adults discard less as they purchase fewer items and hold onto them longer.
In her inaugural speech, former President Tsai Ing-wen announced the policy goal of using the circular economy as a solution to the environmental dilemma:
“We can no longer squander natural resources and the health of our people endlessly as we did in the past. Therefore, we will strictly control all kinds of pollution, and we will also lead Taiwan into an era of circular economy, converting waste into renewable resources, and gradually adjusting energy choices with a sustainable mindset.” (Circular Economy Promotion Office, n.d.)
Instead of a linear textile model where materials are quickly discarded, Taiwan aims to create a circular system where textiles are designed to last longer, made from recyclable or regenerative materials, and recovered for reuse after consumer use. This approach reduces waste, lowers pollution, and keeps valuable resources circulating in the economy (Circular Taiwan Network, n.d.-a; European Commission, 2022).
On July 16, 2024, the Ministry of Environment Resource Circulation Administration launched a circular economy alliance in the textile industry in hopes of completing Taiwan’s pathway to net-zero emissions in 2050 with an ideal recycling rate of 80% (Taiwan Today, 2024).
Of the 12 key strategies of this plan, textile products are a major item that fall under the category of “Resource Recycling and Zero Waste”. Several key actions the Ministry of Environment and the Ministry of Economic Affairs will be implementing including:
(United Nations, n.d.; Circular Taiwan Network, n.d.-b).
Overview of Taiwan’s 12 key strategies for the 2050 net-zero transition. From “Taiwan’s 2050 net-zero transition: 12 key strategies” [Infographic], by Circular Taiwan Network, n.d., Circular Taiwan Network (https://circular-taiwan.org).
Taiwan’s textile industry has become a global leader in sustainable innovation and circular practices. It supplies about 70% of the world’s functional fabrics, showing how advanced technology and environmental responsibility can reshape the textile sector. These high-performance materials are used by major international brands like Nike, Adidas, and ZARA, reflecting Taiwan’s strong presence in global supply chains. Key companies such as Far Eastern New Century, Shinkong Textile, and Atunas are leading the way in polyester recycling, garment-to-garment circularity, and fully recyclable outdoor clothing. Through its commitment to quality, efficiency, and sustainability, Taiwan is helping to build a future where textiles are designed to be reused, minimizing waste and reducing environmental impact (Circular Taiwan Network, n.d.-b).
New Fiber Textile is one of Taiwan’s leading fabric manufacturers and a pioneer in garment-to-garment recycling. Through their Infinity Shirt Project, New Fiber Textile collects old uniforms and clothing and recycles them into new garments. The company manufactures using mono-polyester fabrics, meaning every part of the garment, including trims, is made from a single type of material. This design choice eliminates the need for complicated sorting and allows the textiles to be mechanically broken down into fibers that are spun into new yarn. Any remaining textile waste that cannot be recycled is repurposed as solid recovered fuel or insulation, ensuring minimal waste. This circular system reduces the need for virgin fibers and cuts carbon emissions by up to 58% compared to conventional textile manufacturing (Circular Taiwan Network, n.d.-c). To further learn from this successful company, we reached out to New Fibers Textile Corporation to better understand the industrial process and challenges of current degradation methods. Details of the interview takeaway could be viewed on the IHP Page → Identify the problem.
Atunas is a well-known Taiwanese outdoor brand that has developed the country’s first fully recyclable clothing line. The fabrics are made from 80% recycled PET bottles and 20% reclaimed polyester fibers, while all other components such as zippers, labels, and buttons are also made from polyester. This mono-material approach allows garments to be recycled directly into new fibers without additional separation processes. To promote circularity, Atunas has established a nationwide take-back system with 31 recycling stations and provides free garment repair services to extend product life. This model achieves up to 72% lower carbon emissions compared to traditional polyester apparel and actively involves consumers in a closed-loop recycling cycle (Circular Taiwan Network, n.d.-d).
Acegreen, part of Acelon Fiber, specializes in producing advanced synthetic fibers and is expanding into large-scale textile-to-textile recycling. In partnership with Circ, a U.S.-based recycling technology company, Acegreen uses processes that break down old textiles to separate polyester and cotton so they can be converted back into raw materials. These recycled materials are then transformed into new high-performance fibers, such as filament lyocell made from reclaimed cotton, which are spun into fabrics for new garments. This collaboration supports a fully circular supply chain by turning discarded textiles into fibers that perform like virgin materials, reducing waste and supporting sustainable fashion worldwide (Circ, 2025).
The Taiwan Textile Research Institute (TTRI) is a cornerstone of Taiwan’s success in sustainable textiles. Since its founding in 1959, TTRI has developed groundbreaking fiber technologies such as microfibers, hollow microporous polyester, and eco-friendly finishing processes that have transformed global textile manufacturing. Today, TTRI plays a leading role in advancing circular textile solutions. It focuses on designing fabrics that are easier to recycle, creating quality standards for recycled fibers, and helping the industry adopt materials with lower environmental impact. Through collaboration with both domestic manufacturers and international partners, TTRI ensures that Taiwan remains at the forefront of global textile innovation (TTRI, n.d.). To understand the current landscape of textile circularity in Taiwan, we interviewed with Director Jo-Hua Lee from the TTRI, details of the interview takeaway could be viewed in the IHP Page → Identify the problem → Expert engagement.
The Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI) is one of Taiwan’s leading research organizations and a recognized global innovator in material science and textiles. ITRI is listed among the Clarivate Top 100 Global Innovators and is known for pioneering technologies that combine high performance with sustainability. It develops smart textiles, advanced recycling processes, and bio-based fibers, all of which contribute to Taiwan’s leadership in circular textile technology. By partnering with research hubs in countries like the United States, Japan, and Germany, ITRI exports its expertise and strengthens Taiwan’s role as a model for integrating high-tech innovation with sustainable practices (ITRI, n.d.).
Taiwan’s Environmental Protection Administration (EPA), founded in 1987 and renamed the Ministry of Environment in 2023, shifted from simple waste control to resource circulation by setting up the Recycling Fund Management Board in 1988 and launching the Four-in-One recycling system in January 1997. The program links households that sort waste, township cleaning teams that collect it, licensed recyclers that process it, and a Recycling Fund financed by fees on manufacturers and importers under extended producer responsibility rules. By paying collectors and recyclers by weight, the fund keeps plastics, metals, glass, electronics, and even solar panels in productive use instead of landfill and helped raise Taiwan’s recycling rate from 5.8% in 1998 to 55.14% in 2019 (Circular Economy Promotion Office, n.d.; Recycling Fund Management Board, n.d.).
A concise list of major policy frameworks and initiatives relevant to textiles, waste, and circular economy.