AromaWell: Customize Your Signature Aromatherapy Essential Oil
Preface
In today's fast-paced modern life, do you often feel overwhelmed by stress?
Are you constantly weighed down by hectic work and trivial daily routines?
Do you frequently lack energy and feel down - even after a full night's sleep, waking up still exhausted both mentally and physically?
Or perhaps, tossing and turning at night, struggling to fall asleep, and waking frequently from vivid dreams have become a regular part of your evenings?
If this is exactly what you’re suffering, then it’s time to make a change.
Why not try essential oil aromatherapy? It’s more than just a pleasant scent - it’s a gentle yet effective way to heal and rejuvenate your life[1].
You can choose to light an aromatherapy lamp before bed, or place a portable diffuser by your desk (Fig. 1). Use a single essential oil or create your own custom blend based on your preferences, perfectly suited to your changing physical and emotional needs each day[2].
Fig.1 Products that emit essential oil fragrance.
Amidst the hustle and bustle of life, we can always find a quiet corner to gently embrace ourselves with a whisper of natural fragrance. Let the aroma of essential oils become your most comforting daily ritual.
Essential oils are highly concentrated terpenoids extracted from natural plants, embodying the pure essence of nature. They quickly reach the limbic system of our brain through the sense of smell - the core region governing emotion and memory. With just a whisper of fragrance, they gently ease tense nerves, alleviate anxiety, uplift the mood, and even enhance the quality of sleep[3].
Among the wide variety of essential oils, rose and lavender oils are particularly beloved and widely recognized.
Rose essential oil, honored as the “Queen of Flowers,” offers a sweet and rich fragrance that not only helps alleviate low spirits and boost self-confidence, but also balances female hormones and nourishes the skin[4].
On the other hand, lavender essential oil is often the top choice for aromatherapy beginners. Known for its gentle and soothing properties, it aids in relaxation and stress reduction, serving as a natural aid for improving sleep - just a few drops in a diffuser can create a tranquil and gentle atmosphere for sleep[5].
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1. Rose Essential Oil: The Deep Healing of the “Queen of Flowers”
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The aroma of rose essential oil is luxurious, rich, and multi-layered. Its extraction process is extremely labor-intensive - typically requiring several thousand kilograms of rose petals to produce just one kilogram of oil - hence it is also revered as “liquid gold.” Its key components include citronellol, geraniol, and nerol, among others. These aromatic molecules work in synergy to form the foundation of rose oil’s remarkable benefits. |
The fragrance acts directly on the brain’s nervous system, effectively alleviating anxiety, sorrow, and depressive feelings[6], evoking a sense of being surrounded by love and enhancing self-confidence. Rose essential oil is also regarded as a supreme ingredient in skincare. It offers powerful moisturizing and antioxidant properties, helping to delay skin aging, reduce the appearance of fine lines, even out and brighten the complexion, and improve skin elasticity.
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2. Lavender Essential Oil: The Soothing Care of a “Versatile Guardian”
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Lavender essential oil carries a fresh, gentle, and subtly woody aroma. Its versatility covers nearly every aspect of daily life, making it a must-have in every household. Its benefits stem primarily from two key components: linalool and linalyl acetate. Both are renowned for their exceptional calming, relaxing, and restorative properties [5]. |
This oil is particularly skilled at addressing a variety of skin concerns. With strong anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and wound-healing abilities, it can be used to treat minor burns, cuts, and insect bites - quickly soothing pain, preventing infection, and reducing scarring. The scent of lavender also helps repel moths and mosquitoes. Spraying a diluted lavender mist in your wardrobe not only leaves clothes fresh but also naturally keeps insects away. It is also an excellent choice for neutralizing odors and purifying the air indoors.
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3. Extraction and Chemical Synthesis of Essential Oils
Rose essential oil and lavender essential oil are highly valued for their distinct aromatic properties and biological activities. Commercially available essential oils are predominantly extracted from plant materials, yet their production entails high costs - particularly in the case of rose oil - due to low extraction yields, substantial raw material consumption, and technologically intensive processing. For instance, approximately 50 kg of rose petals are required to obtain just 10 mL of essential oil, corresponding to an extraction yield of only about 0.02% (equivalent to 3–5 tons of petals per kilogram of essential oil). This implies that the production of a single small bottle of rose oil necessitates tens of thousands of roses, justifying its epithet as “liquid gold.” With international market prices ranging around $700–1,500 per 10 mL, rose oil is primarily used in high-end skincare and luxury fragrance applications.
Fig. 2 The process of steam distillation of essential oil.
Conventional steam distillation is widely used for essential oil extraction[7](Fig. 2); however, it may subject certain aromatic compounds to thermal degradation and results in relatively low extraction yields. In contrast, more advanced techniques such as supercritical CO₂ extraction can preserve the aromatic profile more effectively - with an extraction rate of up to 1.29% - and yield a product that more closely resembles the natural scent of the flower. Nevertheless, this method involves high equipment costs and substantial initial investment, which contributes to the elevated market price of rose essential oil (Fig. 3). In particular, high-quality variants, such as those derived from Damask roses via supercritical CO₂ or solvent extraction, may command a price of several hundred RMB per milliliter or even higher.
Fig. 3 The price of a certain rose essential oil product.
Lavender essential oil is relatively more affordable in terms of production cost, owing to its significantly higher extraction efficiency compared to rose. Approximately 0.5-1 kg of lavender flower spikes is required to produce 10 mL of essential oil, yielding an extraction rate of 0.5%-1% (equivalent to 100-200 kg of inflorescence per kilogram of oil). Steam distillation remains the most common and traditional method for extracting lavender essential oil. The cost of domestically produced 10 mL bottles of lavender oil - considering only raw material and packaging expenses - is relatively low. In contrast, high-quality imported lavender oil (Fig.4), such as those derived from Lavandula angustifolia grown in Provence, France, can command a raw material price of around 3,000-3,500 RMB per kilogram, with an international market price approximately ranging from 14 to 42 USD per 10 mL.
Fig. 4 The price of a certain lavender essential oil product.
In addition to traditional plant-based extraction methods, essential oil components can also be produced through chemical synthesis. Synthetic essential oils offer advantages such as lower cost, higher production yield, and independence from botanical sources, with prices as low as 1/10 to 1/100 of those of natural extracts - a disparity particularly pronounced in the case of rose oil.
However, the synthetic versions may replicate the “core aromatic profile,” they often carry chemical off-notes, exhibit short and harsh odor persistence, and lack depth. Furthermore, chemical synthesis is associated with environmental concerns such as wastewater and exhaust emissions, which can contaminate soil and water sources. The final product may also contain unreacted industrial reagents - including residual solvents and by-products - that can irritate the skin and mucous membranes. Long-term use may lead to allergic or photosensitivity reactions, particularly due to synthetic phenethyl alcohol derivatives present in imitation rose oils, making them unsuitable for sensitive individuals.
Therefore, for applications in aromatherapy (e.g., sleep aid and anxiety relief) or high-end skincare (e.g., anti-aging and repair), natural extracts are essential. This is especially true for lavender, whose natural form offers irreplaceable benefits for improving sleep and reducing inflammation, as well as for rose, whose anti-aging synergistic effects cannot be replicated by synthetic alternatives.
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4. Natural Biosynthetic Pathways of Geraniol, Citronellol, and Linalool
Geraniol, citronellol, and linalool are all monoterpenoids, sharing considerable overlap in their natural biosynthetic pathways. Their precursors are primarily synthesized through two major routes: the mevalonic acid (MVA) pathway in the cytoplasm and the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP/DXP) pathway in plastids[8]. Both plants and microorganisms can synthesize the universal terpenoid precursors, isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP), via either the MVA or MEP pathway. IPP and DMAPP, serving as the fundamental building blocks for terpenoid biosynthesis, are condensed into geranyl diphosphate (GPP) by the action of geranyl diphosphate synthase (GPPS).
The MVA pathway begins with acetyl-CoA and, through a series of enzymatic reactions including catalysis by acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase (AACT), proceeds via mevalonic acid as an intermediate to ultimately produce IPP and DMAPP (Fig. 5). The MEP pathway, on the other hand, starts with pyruvate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (Fig. 6). Under catalysis by enzymes such as 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (DXPS), it eventually yields IPP and DMAPP. Upregulation of the expression of key rate-limiting enzymes - AACT in the MVA pathway and DXPS in the MEP pathway - can enhance the production of IPP and DMAPP.
Fig. 5 The mevalonic acid (MVA) pathway.
Fig. 6 The methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway.
Synthesis of Geraniol and Citronellol (Fig. 7): Cytosolic Nudix hydrolases specific to roses, such as RhNUDX1 or RrNUDX1, catalyze the hydrolysis of GPP, removing the pyrophosphate group to yield free geraniol. The expression level of these enzymes is positively correlated with geraniol content. Geraniol is subsequently reduced to citronellol via the action of reductases, a step likely involving NADPH-dependent alkene reductases. Citronellol is stored in glandular structures either in free form or as esterified derivatives, such as citronellyl acetate.
The biosynthesis of linalool proceeds from the substrate GPP (Fig. 7), which is converted into linalool and diphosphate through a hydrolysis reaction catalyzed by the enzyme linalool synthase (LIS). As the key enzyme in linalool synthesis, LIS specifically catalyzes the hydrolysis and cyclization of GPP to form either (S)- or (R)-linalool, depending on the enzyme source. This enzyme exhibits stereoselectivity, directly determining the stereochemical configuration of the product. For instance, expression of the gene CoLIS-D4 from Cinnamomum osmophloeum in Saccharomyces cerevisiae leads to the synthesis of (S)-linalool. Conversely, expression of lavender-derived (3R)-linalool synthase (laLIS) or Streptomyces-derived bLinS in Escherichia coli enables efficient production of (R)-linalool.
Fig. 7 The synthesis pathways of linalool and citronellol.
Interconversion of Geraniol and Linalool: Geraniol and linalool are tertiary allylic alcohols that are structural isomers of each other. Currently, two major classes of enzymes are known to catalyze this isomerization reaction: linalool isomerase (Lis) and linalool dehydratase-isomerase (Fig. 8). Linalool isomerase is a specialized isomerase whose primary function is to catalyze the reversible isomerization between linalool and geraniol. Previous studies have clearly confirmed and determined the kinetic parameters of its catalysis of the geraniol to linalool reaction, demonstrating the enzyme's catalytic capability in this direction[9]. This enzyme is a membrane-anchored protein with transmembrane domains and a cytoplasmic catalytic domain, and it is oxygen-sensitive. Its catalytic mechanism is believed to involve the protonation of the substrate's hydroxyl group, thereby facilitating intramolecular rearrangement.
Fig. 8 The transformation between linalool, geraniol, and citronellol.
GPPS: GPP synthase; FPPS: FPP synthase; LIS: Linalool synthase; GES: Geraniol synthase; GER: Geraniol reductase; Lis: Linalool isomerase.
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5. Research Progress in Microbial Fermentation for the Synthesis of Citronellol and Linalool
5.1 Research Progress in Microbial Fermentation for Citronellol Synthesis
5.1.1 Enhanced Precursor Supply via the MVA Pathway
Citronellol biosynthesis relies on precursor molecules supplied by the mevalonate (MVA) pathway. Overexpression of key enzymes in the MVA pathway (e.g., HMGR, ERG12) and regulation of the farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) branch point have been shown to significantly enhance precursor availability for citronellol synthesis[10,11]. A 2025 study employed dynamic regulation strategies to balance precursor allocation between citronellol synthesis and cell growth, thereby mitigating the inhibitory effects of intermediate metabolite accumulation[12].
5.1.2 Engineering of Citronellol Synthases
The selection and optimization of synthases, such as geraniol synthase, play a critical role in improving citronellol production. Enzyme directed evolution and rational design have been applied to enhance the catalytic efficiency and specificity of citronellol synthases[13,14]. The same 2025 study also demonstrated that optimizing codon usage and promoter strength of citronellol synthases significantly increased enzyme expression and activity[12].
5.1.3 Cofactor Regeneration
The supply of cofactors such as NADPH and ATP is essential for efficient citronellol synthesis. Overexpression of cofactor regeneration-related enzymes (e.g., GDH, ZWF1) and introduction of exogenous cofactor recycling systems have improved intracellular cofactor balance and increased citronellol yield[10,11]. In 2025, synthetic biology tools were used to construct artificial cofactor recycling modules, further enhancing cofactor supply[12].
5.1.4 Cytotoxicity and Product Secretion
Citronellol cytotoxicity poses a limitation to high-level production. Strategies such as overexpression of efflux pumps (e.g., PDR5, SNQ2) and engineering of cell membrane permeability have promoted citronellol secretion and reduced intracellular accumulation. A 2025 study also developed a microencapsulation-based in situ product extraction technique, enabling continuous product removal during fermentation[12].
5.1.5 Fermentation Process Optimization
Fed-batch and continuous fermentation modes have been shown to significantly improve citronellol production compared to batch fermentation[11]. The 2025 study optimized feeding strategies at the 100-L scale through dynamic control of carbon source and inducer feeding, maximizing citronellol yield. Additionally, two-phase (organic-aqueous) fermentation systems have been employed to alleviate product inhibition and improve recovery[12].
5.1.6 Culture Condition Optimization
Optimization of culture conditions - including carbon and nitrogen sources, trace elements, and dissolved oxygen - is crucial for citronellol production. Statistical optimization methods such as response surface methodology (RSM) and artificial neural networks (ANN) have been used to determine optimal medium composition and cultivation parameters[11]. The 2025 study also introduced machine learning-based process control strategies for real-time optimization of fermentation parameters[12].
Conclusion
Between 2020 and 2025, significant advances have been made in citronellol production via microbial fermentation, particularly through the engineering of S. cerevisiae. Systematic metabolic engineering strategies - including precursor enhancement, enzyme engineering, cofactor balancing, and transporter manipulation - have led to breakthrough increases in citronellol titers, reaching up to 10.556 g/L. However, challenges in industrial implementation remain, necessitating further optimization of strain performance, reduction of production costs, and development of efficient downstream processes. Future efforts should integrate multidisciplinary approaches spanning synthetic biology, systems biology, and process engineering to advance the industrialization of citronellol production via fermentation.
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5.2 Research Progress in Microbial Fermentation for Linalool Synthesis
Traditionally, linalool has been primarily obtained through extraction from plant essential oils (e.g., rosewood, lavender) or chemical synthesis. However, these methods are often constrained by limited natural resources, environmental concerns, and poor stereoselectivity. In recent years, the use of microbial cell factories for linalool production via fermentation has emerged as a sustainable and promising alternative.
5.2.1 Bacterial Hosts for Linalool Production
Escherichia coli has been extensively engineered to enhance precursor supply by introducing heterologous mevalonate (MVA) pathways or strengthening the endogenous methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway[15]. For instance, the expression of linalool synthase (LIS) from Lavandula angustifolia, combined with precursor optimization, has significantly improved linalool titers[16]. Notably, an isopentenol utilization (IU) pathway was developed to bypass endogenous limitations by incorporating exogenous prenol, achieving a titer of up to 167 mg/L in E. coli[15].
5.2.2 Yeast as a Platform for Linalool Synthesis
Saccharomyces cerevisiae is widely adopted for linalool production owing to its generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status and robust acetyl-CoA metabolism. Key engineering strategies include:
• Overexpression of MVA pathway genes (e.g., tHMG1, ERG20) to enhance precursor supply[17,18];
• Directed evolution of linalool synthase to improve catalytic efficiency[16];
• Compartmentalization of synthetic pathways into peroxisomes to isolate toxic intermediates and improve efficiency[8,18];
• Tolerance engineering to alleviate linalool cytotoxicity, a major challenge in production[19].
Reported linalool yields in S. cerevisiae range from 23 mg/L to 2.6 g/L using these strategies[8,16.
5.2.3 Enhancing Precursor Supply
Insufficient precursor availability remains a major bottleneck in linalool biosynthesis. Geranyl diphosphate (GPP) is the direct precursor of linalool, and multiple strategies have been employed to increase its pool:
• Overexpression or engineering of GPP synthase to improve activity[17,20];
• Regulation of MVA/MEP pathway flux via key enzymes such as HMG-CoA reductase[17,18];
• Application of non-canonical pathways, including the IU pathway, to supplement endogenous precursor supply[15].
5.2.4 Enzyme Engineering of Linalool Synthase (LIS)
The activity and specificity of LIS directly influence linalool yield and stereoselectivity. Common engineering approaches include:
• Directed evolution to enhance catalytic efficiency and stability[16];
• Fusion tags (e.g., MBP, GST) to improve solubility and expression[17];
• Codon optimization and promoter engineering for fine-tuned gene expression[17];
• Use of high-efficiency gene editing tools such as CRISPR-Cas9 to accelerate iterative multigene modifications[16].
5.2.5 Fermentation Strategies and Process Optimization
• Fed-batch fermentation with controlled substrate feeding has been critical for achieving gram-scale production;
• Two-phase fermentation systems with organic phases (e.g., ethyl oleate, dodecane) enable in situ product extraction, mitigating cytotoxicity and improving overall yield[21];
• Key process parameters - including temperature, pH, and agitation - are systematically optimized. Carbon source selection (e.g., glucose, glycerol) and feeding strategies[19], induction conditions (e.g., IPTG concentration, timing, and temperature)[16], and aeration/agitation for oxygen transfer are also crucial.
Conclusion
Significant progress has been made in the microbial production of linalool, with engineered bacterial and yeast strains achieving gram-per-liter titers (up to 10.9 g/L). Metabolic engineering strategies have evolved from single-gene modifications to system-level pathway recombination and optimization. Nevertheless, large-scale industrial production still faces economic and technical challenges, particularly regarding product toxicity, cost-effectiveness, and scale-up. Interdisciplinary efforts will be essential to realize the full commercial potential of linalool production via microbial fermentation.
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6. Our Project: Customized Synthesis of Core Components in Rose-Lavender Essential Oil via Microbial Fermentation
In the fields of aromatherapy, high-end cosmetics, and fine chemicals, both the rich and tender notes of rose essential oil and the fresh soothing properties of lavender essential oil hold irreplaceable application value. However, their conventional extraction processes have long been constrained by limitations such as fluctuations in raw material quality, fixed ratios of active components, and high resource consumption. Crucially, the core aromatic active compounds of these two essential oils - geraniol, citronellol, and linalool- share common biosynthetic pathways in plants: the mevalonate (MVA) and methylerythritol phosphate (MEP/DXP) pathways. Their biosynthesis involves competitive utilization of key precursors such as geranyl diphosphate (GPP), and this metabolic homology provides a molecular-level feasibility for their simultaneous production.
Current market demand for essential oil products has shifted from “standardized supply” to “personalized customization.” High-end fragrance formulations may require enhanced ratios of geraniol/citronellol - characteristic of rose oil - to accentuate richness, while aromatherapy applications may call for higher proportions of linalool, dominant in lavender oil, to improve soothing effects. Variations in olfactory preferences among consumer groups further intensify the need for dynamically adjustable composition ratios.
To address this demand, we propose an innovative microbial fermentation-based strategy leveraging metabolic engineering to modify microbial chassis (e.g., yeast or E. coli) for precise regulation of metabolic flux:
• On one hand, by modulating the expression intensity and spatiotemporal behavior of key enzymes such as geranyl diphosphate synthase (GPPS) and linalool synthase (LIS), we can achieve directed control over the synthesis rates of geraniol, citronellol, and linalool.
• On the other hand, capitalizing on the controllability of fermentation systems, preset target ratios of these compounds can be achieved in a single fermentation process, enabling simultaneous synthesis of the core components of both rose and lavender essential oils without the need for post-production blending.
This approach not only overcomes the dependence of traditional plant extraction on natural conditions but also establishes a “demand-driven – metabolism-regulated – product-customized” closed loop. By dynamically adjusting the activity levels of key enzymes, the system can flexibly adapt to a full spectrum of ratio requirements - from “rose-dominant” to “lavender-dominant” profiles. Moreover, leveraging the high conversion efficiency and low environmental impact of microbial fermentation, it significantly reduces production costs and ecological footprint.
From a technological perspective, this strategy upgrades natural essential oil synthesis from a “resource-dependent” model to a “technology-driven” one. It offers a novel paradigm for customized production of high-end essential oils and opens new avenues for the synergistic biosynthesis of multi-component natural active compounds.
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